Does Humanity Have Enough Information To Disaster Proof The Planet?

Thursday, 26 November 2015

Bibliography

Bibliography for Websites

Websites in correct bibliography order

BBC News, 2012. Japan quake: Loss and recovery in numbers. [online] Available at: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-17219008> [Accessed 12 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Good source, that supplied number on property damages as well as death toll.

Bernard, E. and Titov, V., 2015. Evolution of tsunami warning systems and products. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 373(2053), p.20140371.

Evaluation: Showed how recent tsunamis have led to revival in the science.

Bom.gov.au, 2015. Deep Ocean Tsunami Detection Buoys. [online] Available at: <http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/about/detection_buoys.shtml> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Information on current warning systems for Tsunamis.

Bom.gov.au, 2015. Tsunami Facts and Information. [online] Available at: <http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/info/> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: More information on how tsunami wave heights can be calculated and what apparatus is used.

Brave New Climate, 2011. Fukushima Nuclear Accident - a simple and accurate explanation. [online] Available at: <http://bravenewclimate.com/2011/03/13/fukushima-simple-explanation/> [Accessed 15 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Informative source on Fukushima nuclear disaster and its impacts.

Cluff, L., 2007. NAE Website - Effects of the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami in Aceh Province. [online] Nae.edu. Available at: <https://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/EngineeringfortheThreatofNaturalDisasters/Effectsofthe2004Sumatra-AndamanEarthquakeandIndianOceanTsunamiinAcehProvince.aspx> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Detail analysis of the impacts and damage of the earthquake and tsunami and was extremely helpful.

Faust, T., 2005. Indian Ocean Earthquake Triggers Deadly Tsunami. [online] Soundwaves.usgs.gov. Available at: <http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/01/> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Sourced used to give information on tectonics for the 2004 disaster.

Kageyama, Y., 2015. Child cancer rate soars after Fukushima nuclear disaster | Toronto Star. [online] thestar.com. Available at: <http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2015/10/08/child-cancer-rate-soars-after-fukushima-nuclear-disaster.html> [Accessed 23 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Good source at showing the ongoing impacts of the disaster of 2011.

Lee, J., 2013. The 2011 Japan Tsunami Was Caused By Largest Fault Slip Ever Recorded. [online] News.nationalgeographic.com. Available at: <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/the-2011-japan-tsunami-was-caused-by-largest-fault-slip-ever-recorded/> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Describe the massive fault slip that occurred during the 2004 earthquake.

National Geographic Education, 2011. Ring of Fire. [online] Available at: <http://education.nationalgeographic.com.au/encyclopedia/ring-fire/> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Wwas used as background information for the Japanese earthquake and explains why the area is so dynamic.

Nguyen, T., 2014. This House is Built to Withstand the Force of a Tsunami. [online] Smithsonian. Available at: <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/house-built-withstand-force-tsunami-180949455/?no-ist> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Great source that demonstrates the type of tsunami resistant infrastructure that can be developed.

Oskin, B., 2015. Japan Earthquake & Tsunami of 2011: Facts and Information. [online] LiveScience.com. Available at: <http://www.livescience.com/39110-japan-2011-earthquake-tsunami-facts.html> [Accessed 3 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Great information on the mechanics as well as the affects of the 2011 Japanese earthquake and tsunami

Pike, J., 2015. Japan Tsunami Damage Cost Could Top $300 Billion. [online] Globalsecurity.org. Available at: <http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/japan/2011/japan-110325-voa01.htm> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Talks of the massive costs that were as a result of the tsunami that destroyed complete areas of Japan.

Rafferty, J. and Pletcher, K., 2015. Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/event/Japan-earthquake-and-tsunami-of-2011> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Favourite site that was used, informative and detailed that gave information on almost all aspects of the 2011 tectonic disaster

Sample, I., 2011. Japan earthquake and tsunami: what happened and why. [online] the Guardian. Available at: <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/11/japan-earthquake-tsunami-questions-answers> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: One of many sites that used when getting background information on the Japan disaster.

Shirley, J., 2005. Astonishing Wave Heights Among the Findings of an International Tsunami Survey Team on Sumatra. [online] Soundwaves.usgs.gov. Available at: <http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/03/> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Report on wave heights in the area of Sumatra used for research of the mechanics of the 2004 event

The Washington Post, 2011. Japan a leader in engineering earthquake-proof structures, helping to limit damage. [online] Available at: <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/11/AR2011031104541_2.html> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Was used for the majority of information on the earthquake resistant buildings and was highly helpful

USGS, 2014. Monitoring Instruments. [online] Available at: <http://earthquake.usgs.gov/monitoring/deformation/data/instruments.php> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Used for research into instruments used to record and warn people of earthquakes.

Wikipedia, 2005. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. [online] Available at: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami> [Accessed 24 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Proved to be one of the best source due to the depth that it had on all areas affected by the disaster and was used for a large portion of the report on the Indian Ocean disaster.

YouTube, 2011. Japan's Tsunami: How It Happened (1 of 5). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FM4E19PZhw> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

YouTube, 2011. Japan's Tsunami: How It Happened (2 of 5). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Yx3nK7si-Q> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

YouTube, 2011. Japan's Tsunami: How It Happened (3 of 5). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLpZOAdZsDg> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

YouTube, 2011. Japan's Tsunami: How It Happened (4 of 5). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D_54UJ2msC0> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

YouTube, 2011. Japan's Tsunami: How It Happened (5 of 5). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ww4ozXrBxY4> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation of video parts 1 to 5: A great resource to orientate yourself on the issues that are caused by such tectonic events and was able to obtain a rough understanding of the timeline events from the 2011 disaster.

YouTube, 2013. Understanding the accident of Fukushima Daiichi NPS - Source IRSN. [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMaEjEWL6PU> [Accessed 12 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Gave an in depth walk through of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster and what occurred

YouTube, 2015. Fukushima Nuclear Reactor Problem Explained (CNN). [online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdbitRlbLDc> [Accessed 13 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Was also used to understand the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster and the events that unfolded

Bibliography for Images

Image order from first to last post in order of appearance – as image are un able to be referenced in the blog themselves

Photo from Website: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011. [online] Available at: <http://www.britannica.com/event/Japan-earthquake-and-tsunami-of-2011> [Accessed 2 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Good images that show an accurate location of the epicentre.

Ted-Ed, 2014. How tsunamis work - Alex Gendler. [video] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wx9vPv-T51I> [Accessed 16 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Great short explanation of how a tsunami works.

Australian Geographic, 2011. A tsunami hits the north-east coast of Japan after a magnitude 9.0 earthquake on March 11, 2011.. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com.au/search?q=japan+tsunami+hits+coast&espv=2&biw=1440&bih=778&tbm=isch&imgil=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%253BpcRg3_8NdedO8M%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fwww.foxnews.com%25252Fworld%25252F2011%25252F03%25252F11%25252Ftsunami-watch-issued-hawaii-pacific%25252F&source=iu&pf=m&fir=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%252CpcRg3_8NdedO8M%252C_&dpr=1&usg=__qbECBs-NzpAHj9pbdpbv9OYcejc%3D&ved=0ahUKEwiz6auTjq7JAhVn3KYKHZDuAYsQyjcINg&ei=0P1WVrPBL-e4mwWQ3YfYCA&safe=active&ssui=on#imgrc=Mh5I-tZaaYHEPM%3A&usg=__qbECBs-NzpAHj9pbdpbv9OYcejc%3D> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Powerful image that shows the force of the Tsunami as it crashes through Japan

Getty Images, 2011. https://www.google.com.au/search?q=fukushima+explosion&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgw6vGya7JAhWDKaYKHelBD78Q_AUICCgC&biw=1440&bih=918&safe=active&ssui=on#imgrc=lKLIZeqA99JAlM%3A. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com.au/search?q=fukushima+explosion&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjgw6vGya7JAhWDKaYKHelBD78Q_AUICCgC&biw=1440&bih=918&safe=active&ssui=on#imgrc=lKLIZeqA99JAlM%3A> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015]

Evaluation: Shows the explosion of radioactive material and is a visual aid to the explanation used in the blog and hence is helpful

Getty Images, 2011. A ship washed ashore during the 2011 Japan tsunami lies amidst wreckage in Kesennuma, Miyagi, Japan.. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com.au/search?q=japan+tsunami+hits+coast&espv=2&biw=1440&bih=778&tbm=isch&imgil=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%253BpcRg3_8NdedO8M%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fwww.foxnews.com%25252Fworld%25252F2011%25252F03%25252F11%25252Ftsunami-watch-issued-hawaii-pacific%25252F&source=iu&pf=m&fir=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%252CpcRg3_8NdedO8M%252C_&dpr=1&usg=__qbECBs-NzpAHj9pbdpbv9OYcejc%3D&ved=0ahUKEwiz6auTjq7JAhVn3KYKHZDuAYsQyjcINg&ei=0P1WVrPBL-e4mwWQ3YfYCA&safe=active&ssui=on#safe=active&tbm=isch&q=damage+to+property+due+to+tsunai+japan+2011&imgrc=fM3bkZKFwSr18M%3A> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Shows the power of the tsunami to be able to carry a tanker inland

Shimbun, A., 2011. A woman cries while sitting on a road amid the destroyed city of Natori, Miyagi Prefecture in northern Japan March 13, 2011.. [image] Available at: <http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/03/14/idINIndia-55567920110314> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: The anguish on the women face show the distress she is in due to the disaster.

Photo from Website: BBC, 2005. [image] Available at: <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4126019.stm> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Good map at showing all the different places that were affect by the 2004 tsunami

Russian Academy of Science, 2005. The Global Reach of the 26 December 2004 Sumatra Tsunami. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com.au/search?q=japan+tsunami+hits+coast&espv=2&biw=1440&bih=778&tbm=isch&imgil=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%253BpcRg3_8NdedO8M%253Bhttp%25253A%25252F%25252Fwww.foxnews.com%25252Fworld%25252F2011%25252F03%25252F11%25252Ftsunami-watch-issued-hawaii-pacific%25252F&source=iu&pf=m&fir=2z4h7oo4WGQpjM%253A%252CpcRg3_8NdedO8M%252C_&dpr=1&usg=__qbECBs-NzpAHj9pbdpbv9OYcejc%3D&ved=0ahUKEwiz6auTjq7JAhVn3KYKHZDuAYsQyjcINg&ei=0P1WVrPBL-e4mwWQ3YfYCA&safe=active&ssui=on#safe=active&tbm=isch&q=tidal+gauges+level+tsunami+2004&imgrc=crsQwQXyw8SlTM%3A> [Accessed 24 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Shows the dispersion of water through out the Indian ocean effectively.

BBC, 2014. Boxing Day tsunami 2004: How the places affected look now. [image] Available at: <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-24/boxing-day-tsunami-then-now-photos/5875900> [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Good comparision of the rebuild that was undertaken in the area hit in 2004

Photos from Website : Bom.gov.au, 2015. Deep Ocean Tsunami Detection Buoys. [online] Available at: <http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/about/detection_buoys.shtml> [Accessed 26 Nov. 2015].

Evaluation: Shows the apparatus used for detecting Earthquakes.

Conclusion - "Does Humanity have enough Information to Disaster Proof the Planet"

Conclusion:

The earth is dynamic and is ever moving and changing and as a result sometimes can cause catastrophic tectonic disasters in the process which has endangered the lives of millions over centuries of recorded time. The question is posed therefore “Does humanity have enough information to disaster proof the planet?”. To disaster proof the planet is not to stop tectonic events but to proof the planet of the disaster that coincides with these events. Even this is a monumental task that will take decades to achieve. There are many reasons why disaster ‘proofing’ the planet is still far from achievable.

Scientists are still in the early stages of creating methods to predict earthquakes. As mentioned earlier scientists are in the early stages of studying anomalies caused by the compression of rock, these anomalies include electromagnetic, earthquake lights, thermal infrared VLP (very low frequency) radio waves anomalies. These all occur around the epicentre of future earthquakes and into the future these anomalies may be of vital importance of predicting earthquakes though this could be decades away. Though research is being done to understand these anomalies that could warn humanity before an earthquake strikes, the emphases is on minimising damage and death. This will come through both education and implementing warning systems in more areas. Today there are four main tsunami warning systems the Pacific, Indian, Caribbean and Atlantic/ Mediterranean warning centres that are able to send warnings and risks assessment out within minutes of the event occurring.

In addition to this, greater education needs to be used so that people respond promptly when warning system are alerted. Technology has advanced rapidly in the last decade and so we have infrastructure to minimise damage, though education needs to also be implemented. The effects of a lack of education was seen in 2011 when only 58% of the people in the prefecture hit moved to higher ground and out of the way of the Tsunami, this was partially due to the inaccuracy in the size of the Tsunami but also because people didn’t feel they were in much danger. In addition, many tourists in 2004 rushed to the beach as the tide withdrew fascinated by the withdrawing water and then were stranded as the crest of tsunami moved in. So along with warning systems education needs to be put in place.

Furthermore, the conditions of the areas in which disasters have struck are not the same. There are economic and social differences from country to country. In the Indian Ocean 2004 disaster the areas that were struck were developing nations, in addition to this the areas were also low lying. There were no warning systems in place and so even though areas such as Sri Lanka were struck three hours after the initial earthquake, the Tsunami was still unexpected and added to the death toll. As well the infrastructure in these countries was very basic and so refuge couldn’t be found in buildings that were reinforced by concrete or had multiple storeys to climb.

In 2011 there was the nuclear disaster which has displaced 170,000 people and is causing thyroid cancer in children. Hence we can see that areas hit by disaster are not all the same and need all be treated differently which adds to the issue of ‘disaster proofing’ the planet.

Therefore it can be seen that at the moment we can not disaster proof the planet. Prediction of earthquakes is still decades away and therefore research and development only aims to minimise the risk. As well as this, there are economic and social differences that make it hard to protect the world equally. Finally though, every case is different, in 2004 the area was developing and had no warning system and so the countries hit were taken completely by surprise. In 2011 in a developed country there was a radioactive fallout which had great affect, so it can bee seen that every case is different hence making it impossible to disaster proof the planet.

Brian Shiro NOAA Federal - Response to Questions

What advancements or new technology is being developed for the warning of earthquakes prior to the earthquake occurring?

Unfortunately, there is no reliable way to predict when future earthquakes will happen - at least not yet. Most seismologists believe such prediction ability, if it ever happens, will be far in the future. However, many researchers are working on this problem, and there are some compelling possibilities on the horizon. For example, people have long noticed that some animals seem to know an earthquake is coming before it arrives. They must be feeling some type of precursor and then responding to it. There are also well-documented but difficult-to-explain phenomena of earthquake lights, thermal infrared anomalies, VLP (very low frequency) radio waves, and TEC (total electron count) anomalies that been observed in areas near future earthquake epicenters. These all point to some type of electromagnetic disturbance that may be associated with the tectonic pressure buildup that leads to earthquakes. In a few decades we may understand such phenomena well enough to use this information in a predictive sense, but it is still much to early to tell. You can learn more about these concepts here: http://geocosmo.org/the-science/and http://www.seti.org/seti-institute/project/details/friedemann-freund-—-future-forecasting-earthquakes

I want to stress that from the perspective of public safety from earthquakes or tsunamis, we are a very long way off from being able to any sort of predictive abilities related to the above or anything else. Thus, warning for seismic events today is focused on rapid detection of earthquakes after they occur and quickly getting notifications out to people in the affected area. In places where we have a sufficiently dense seismic monitoring network, we can even warn people in advance of the earthquake shaking through a process called ‘earthquake early warning’. This relies upon very rapid detection of the earthquake close-in to the epicenter and sending of warnings in advance of the seismic wavefront. Only a few places like Japan, California, and a few other urban centers in Mexico, Taiwan, and Romania have dense enough seismic station networks to allow for earthquake early warning. You can learn more about that here: http://www.shakealert.org and http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/earlywarning/

Do you believe that humanity have enough information to disaster proof the planet? (do we have the understanding and technology to be able to avoid disasters after tectonic events?)

No. We cannot prevent natural disasters for happening. As the human population grows, natural disasters will have more and more potential for harm going into the future. All we can do is study them to better understand them, monitor them closely, and mitigate the threat in a proactive way. This includes having appropriate building codes to ensure structures don’t collapse during earthquakes, having evacuation plans and practicing evacuation drills with the public, and ensuring that key infrastructure like power plants, hospitals, and water supplies are protected.

Do you believe the ability of humanity to disaster proof itself is case specific, therefore economic and political factors also play a part in the ability of a country to disaster proof itself?

There is no way to “disaster proof” humanity. Yes, economic and political factors definitely play a key role in how well a country can protect itself to mitigate the effects of disasters. For example, the relatively small magnitude 7.0 Haiti earthquake in 2010 caused tremendous damage and casualties (maybe more than 200,000). This is due largely to how poor the country is and the lack of any appropriate building code standards to and other essential infrastructure. Events of that magnitude occurring in more developed countries have much smaller detrimental effects due to better planning and resources that are allocated towards mitigating hazards.

When do you think the next big earthquake off the coast of Japan will occur?

I do not know. Most seismologists did not think a magnitude 9 earthquake was even possible there. Yet it happened. This has fundamentally changed how we think about the physics of faulting and strength of rocks/sediments at subduction zones and the threat posed by them. Since the section of fault around Tohoku, Japan has ruptured in 2011, it is highly unlikely that another large earthquake will occur there for several hundreds of years. However, the areas north or south of the ruptured fault area would be places to expect larger earthquakes to happen sooner. If this occurred to the south, it could be very bad for even larger population centers such as Tokyo. See the following for some more on the subject: http://www.livescience.com/27773-how-japan-s-2011-earthquake-happened-infographic.html andhttp://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-01/new-earthquake-study-raises-alarm-fault-areas-thought-be-low-risk and http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/the-2011-japan-tsunami-was-caused-by-largest-fault-slip-ever-recorded/

How did the recent 2011 Japanese Earthquake and Tsunami and the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami aid research into the understanding of tectonics and how to prepare for earthquakes?

Both of these events changed how seismologies think earthquake faulting works. The 2004 Sumatra earthquake ruptured on the longest length fault ever recorded (over 1200 km), and the 2011 Tohoku event was the largest slip on a fault ever recorded at 80 meters. Both of these challenged our understanding of how rocks respond to stress, how coupling between plates is affected by the strength of rock, and what this means for earthquake potential. The 2004 event in particular spawned a revolution of international attention, funding, and research into the threat of large, tsunamigenic earthquakes that has greatly improved how quickly and accurately tsunami warning can happen. These events have led to more seismic monitoring stations to be deployed and thus better capabilities for earthquake early warning.

Have there been any other break throughs in tectonic movement and motion that would relate to the topic of my studies?

I can offer that the biggest single breakthrough that has aided in tsunami forecasting (estimation of tsunami height) has been the development of faster and cheaper computers over the past decade. We’ve gone from tsunami forecast models taking hours to complete to just seconds today. Our decision-making is better as a result, and we can offer more precise warnings. Add to this, the great increase in seismic and sea level monitoring networks worldwide and improved data transmission capabilities, and we can now detect earthquakes and issue tsunami warnings in a matter of a few minutes in most areas.

Sincerely,
Brian Shiro
Geophysicist
NOAA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

Minimising Damage and Risk

Minimising Damages:

Damage to buildings is a concern of all earthquake prone areas and new technology and policy has been introduced in Earthquake prone areas to attempt to keep buildings and other infrastructure from collapsing, which would cause casualties in cities if buildings began to collapse.

Regulations and Earthquake Resistant Buildings:

Regulations are an important part in combating casualties from infrastructure. Areas such as Japan have strict rules on the reinforcement that needs to be implicated for buildings of certain heights. This minimises the effects that earthquakes have on buildings and also keeps the people of an area safe. In addition to this there are various ways in which a building can be engineered so that it is resistant to the effects of disasters. Resonance frequency of building refers to the amount of vibration a building naturally has. If an earthquake is able to equal the resonance frequency of a building the building will collapse. Therefore, creating supports made from rubber or teflon that absorbs the shock makes it harder for the earthquake to reach the resonance frequency of a building. In addition, the taller the building the lower the resonance frequency of a building is and therefore they fall easier, hence more attention is paid to taller building. In new high rise buildings engineering has allowed the building to be flexible and move at the time of the earthquake helping to dissipate the shock of the earthquake. As well thick-oil can be used to move in the opposite direction of shaking to combat the movement as well.

Liquefaction:

Defending against liquefaction is also important. Areas that contain water saturated soils when shaken causes the ground to give way and buildings sink into the now liquid mud type soil. To defend against this, it is advisable to not build in the areas that are known to be saturated, weak soils. Adding more soil to the top of the existing soil can also be done. Liquefaction can cause huge damage to buildings and property.

Regulation and Tsunami Resistance

The protection of buildings and infrastructure from tsunamis is hard to manage as they are such a powerful force of nature. Tsunami walls are seen as the primary option for stopping the wave. These walls made of solid concrete can be over 10 metres with the latest wall being constructed in Japan reaching a height of 12.5 metres to prevent tsunamis from rushing through the cities and towns. Tsunami resistant buildings can also be created and though the building will still be damaged the damage is minimised. The idea behind the technique is that the walls of the ground floor around able to be destroyed and hence water can pass through the building, though the structural frame can withstand the tsunami and hence support any other floor above. Though there are limitations as water levels from the Tsunami in Japan were as tall as ten metres and so combatting against the disaster is hard.

How can lives be saved:

The forces created by natural disasters especially tsunami are hard to combat against. Infrastructure can be put in place to minimise the damage of both earthquakes and tsunami and sea walls can be erected to try and prevent the damaging waves from moving through towns. These are good ways of minimising damage to towns though these events will still happen and sometimes defence like sea walls will be breached just like in 2011 in Ofunato Japan and so it can be seen that the most relevant way to minimise death and injury is through education and warning. As stated earlier only 58% of people moved to safety when alerts were sent out in Japan during the 2011 Earthquake and Tsunami. Hence education needs to be wide spread about the dangers of the disaster and what to do in the case of an emergency. As well as this, warning systems need to be continually developed and new avenues such as electromagnetic anomalies need to continue to be explored as the best way to save lives is through early warning and education.

Prevention and limitations of the disastrous effect of the plate tectonics movement:

Earthquakes:

Scientists are looking into new techniques but at the moment there is still no way of predicting earthquake. We can only prepare for them thoroughly. Some ways that they can be detected though when they start is through the following:

Seismometers:

A seismometer detects movement in the ground. The instrument is generally used to monitor the different seismic waves as they approach an area (Primary, Secondary, Love and Rayleigh wave) and monitor their violence.

Creepmeter:

Creepmeters is a device used to record the movement of a fault. Two piers on either side of the fault are connected to each other from opposite sides of the fault. As the fault moves the connection is pulled (usually a spring) and the creep is recorded on a computer.

Strainmeters:

Strainmeters are instruments used to measure the deformation and movement of the earth's crust. The instrument monitors the build up of tension in a certain area. The more pressure and strain the more likely faulting and an earthquakes are to occur, the instrument is usually placed in a bore hole were noise doesn’t effect the instrument and is cemented into the ground at 200 metres.

Laser Beam Survey:

Measures changes in the shape of the mountain or movement on the fault line. This is then used to alert warning centres of the movement cause by earthquakes via satellites.

Earthquake Early Warning:

Earthquake Early Warning is a way of warning people of Earthquakes seconds to minutes in advance. The system requires a large amount of seismic monitors to alert stations of seismic activity that then alerts people of when shaking will start. The system uses the fastest moving Primary waves to detect the earthquake which then gives people time to prepare for the more destructive Secondary and Love and Rayleigh waves to reach their area. Scientists see this as the best option at the moment as there are no viable ways of predicting yet and so this method gives the most warning.

Accuracy of such instruments:

These instruments have been around for centuries with primitive seismometers being created in 1855 and overtime new technology has allowed these to be very accurate ways of measuring the movement of tectonic plates and the movement caused by earthquakes. These instruments are accurate but they don’t predict earthquakes and that is the issue, they only measure when an earthquake occurs or measure movement in the ground but can not accurately predict earthquakes.

Improvements:

The instruments that are used today are highly advanced, hence they don’t need anymore advancements to be made to them. The next step on the agenda for seismologists is to find ways of actually predicting when earthquakes will occur to give everyone ample time to find safety. Scientists are making research into different avenues of the detection of earthquakes. It has been recorded that some animals are able to detect when an earthquake it about to occur. This method has been used to detect earthquakes in some Chinese provinces. “There are also well-documented but difficult-to-explain phenomena of earthquake lights, thermal infrared anomalies, VLP (very low frequency) radio waves, and TEC (total electron count) anomalies that have been observed in areas near future earthquake epicentres. These all point to some type of electromagnetic disturbance that may be associated with the tectonic pressure buildup that leads to earthquakes.” (Brian Shiro NOAA Federal 2015). Into the future this maybe used as a way of predicting earthquakes and being better prepared by such research although it is still in its primitive stages and could be decades before scientists fully understand this. As well, monitoring the release of Radon Gas, this gas contains radioactive isotopes and is usually held in the mineral crystals of rocks, though before an earthquake occurs small fractures can occur releasing this gas. This could be a way to predict earthquakes into the future though the issue is, getting instruments out to detect the gas release and proving its validity.

Tsunami Detection:

Tsunamis are created as bi-products of submarine land slides, submarine volcanic eruptions and submarine earthquakes and hence predicting the occurrence of these comes through being able to predict these movements. Though there are methods of detection of tsunamis that are available.

Deep-Ocean Tsunami Detection Buoy:

Deep-Ocean Tsunami Detection Buoys are apparatus that measure the change in pressure and movement in the ocean. A computer that sits on the floor of the ocean analyses the changing height of the water by analysing pressure. The computer collates this information and transmits it to a buoy on the surface of the water. This surface buoy is then used to send this information to Tsunami Warning Centres. The system has two modes. A standard mode and event mode. The standard mode sends general information periodically to Tsunami Warning Centres and so saves energy as it is not continuously sending information. Event mode is the other mode and is activated when the computer detects the tsunami waves (or seismic waves) passing through the water and then is able to record the changing pressure in water. This information can then be used to determine the size of the Tsunami that will be generated.

Tidal Gauges:

These are usually used to measure the heights of tides but can also be used to measure the heights of Tsunami’s. A vertical pipe sits above the water with the bottom end in the water. Sound waves are emitted to the bottom of the pipe which is underwater. As the sound hits the water it radiates back to the top giving a reading of the surface height of the ocean. This is effective in monitoring the change of water heights around the coast of effected areas.

Satellites:

Using Satellite is a less effective way of detecting tsunamis as the satellite has to be in orbit for the process to work.

Tsunami Warning Centres:

Warning Centres are set up to monitor areas for Tsunamis. In the Pacific the main centre is located in Ewa Beach Hawaii and is operated by United State National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, centres are also located in the Indian, Caribbean and Atlantic/Mediterranean. The warning centres are able to warn countries of the potential of a tsunami and also able to estimate heights of the waves using information from the deep sea buoys that are located around faults using the relationship between speed of the tsunami and water depth, with tsunamis being taller if they are in shallower water but also slower.

Accuracy of Equipment:

Tidal Gauges are extremely accurate at measuring the changes in water height down to 1mm of inaccuracy, satellites are less accurate but can give good indication about the displacement caused by the Tsunami over a large area if a satellite is available. The issue once again is that they don’t predict tsunamis before hand. Deep-Ocean Buoys on the other hand are becoming more and more accurate. The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami sparked a renewal into Tsunami warning systems with the UN forming an Indian Ocean Warning Centre after the disaster of 2004. The disaster itself has led to a renewal in the investigation of the technology and today the warning centres around the world are able make accurate prediction on the wave size and the level of danger the community is in. In 2011 the Japanese warning system underestimated the size of the wave which caused people to underestimate the danger they were in. The systems that are in place are becoming more and more accurate with Japan installing a new centre after the 2011 Tsunami and Earthquake which will more accurately calculate the size of the wave.